Logic

Logic

a. Definition.

Logic is first of all an instinctive art. We all, from an early age, try to 'sort out' our experiences and 'make sense' of the world around us — and this thought process is to varying degrees 'logical'. It is logical to the extent that we try to consider the evidence, avoid contradictions, and try to understand. We call this using 'common sense'.

On a higher level, logic is a science, which developed out of the self-awareness of thinkers. They began to wonder why some thoughts were more credible, forceful, and informative than others, and gradually discerned the patterns of logical intelligence, the apparatus of reasoning. A logic theorist is called a logician. Note that we also call 'a logic', any specific field of or approach to logical science.

Logic as a field of inquiry has two goals, then. On a practical level, we want it to provide us with a guide book and exercise manual, which tells us how to think straight and trains us to do so efficiently. On a theoretical level, we seek the assurance that human knowledge does, or can be made to, conform to reality. How these methodological and philosophical tasks are fulfilled, will become apparent as we proceed.

Logic is of value to all individuals, bettering their daily reasoning processes, and thus their efficacy in dealing with their lives, and their work. It teaches you organization, enabling you to arrive at the solution of problems more efficiently. It helps you to formulate more pondered opinions and values.

Be you an artist, a parent, a university professor, a doctor, a psychologist, a civil engineer, an auto-mechanic, a bank manager, an office worker, an investor, a planner, an organizer, a negotiator, a lawmaker, judge or lawyer, a politician or journalist, a systems analyst, a statistician, a computer or robot programmer, whatever your profession or walk of life — you are sure to find the study of logic useful.

It is of value to scientists of all disciplines, helping them to clarify issues and formulate solutions to problems. There is no area of human interest or endeavor where logic does not have a say, and where the study of logic would not be effective in improving our situation.

Logic is worth studying also, for the sheer esthetic joy of it. There is no describing the mind's response to this beautiful, colorful achievement of the human spirit. I hope the reader will have as much fun reading this book, as I had writing it. It can be hard work, but it is rewarding. My own favorite topic is de-re modality; I find it closer to earth than logical modality.

b. Method.

Logic teaches us to pursue and verify knowledge. It is based on an acknowledgment of the possibility of human error, but also implies our ability to correct errors. Where veracity or falsity is hard to establish, it tells us at least how 'reasonable' or 'forced' our judgments are.

It is essentially a holistic science, teaching us to take everything into consideration when forming judgments. Truth is not to be found in a limited viewpoint, but through a global perspective, an awareness of all aspects of an issue, all proposed answers to a question.

Logical science shows us what to look for in the course of knowledge acquisition, by listing and clarifying the main forms of relation among things and ideas (whence the name 'formal logic'). It is the 'systems analysis' of human thought.

Logic is concerned with the formalities of reasoning, without so much regard to its subject-matter. It allows for objective assessments of inferential processes, precisely because its principles make minimal references to specific contents of thought. It is emotionally detached, it has no double standards, it is open-minded and fair.

Logic is a tool of interpretation, understanding, and prediction. It is a method for drawing the maximum amount of useful information from new experiences, or enveloped in previous knowledge, so as to fully exploit the lessons of the world of matter and mind, appearing all around us all the time.

What logic does is to help us to take all impressions and intuitions in stride, and resolve any disagreements which may arise. What is sure, is that, in reality, things themselves can never be in contradiction. It is ideas which conflict with each other or with primary experiences. Sometimes it is the idea that there is a conflict which turns out to be wrong.

The job of logicians is, not to reword what is already known, but to uncover and enhance the logical capabilities of everyday language. This is achieved by first singling out any concept which seems to infiltrate all fields of human interest. Often, the colloquial expression relating to it has many meanings; in such case, we make an agreement to use those words in only the selected sense, which is usually their most common connotation. Once all risk of ambiguity or equivocation is set aside, we can develop a clear and rigorous understanding of the logical properties of the concept under consideration.

The so-called logical order of development is satisfying to trained logicians (from the general to the particular, as it were), and has also some didactic value. But it is often the opposite of the way an individual or a researcher normally arrives at knowledge (building up from specific discoveries, then formulating a comprehensive theory); sometimes, replicating the natural order is a more effective teaching method.

Sometimes these two kinds of orders coincide. In the last analysis, they are always to some extent both involved, working in tandem; logical practise is an integral part of logical theorizing.

As for the historical order, it follows the natural order pretty closely, though with some redundancies. Some other consciousness must precede self-consciousness. Logic has developed on both the deductive and inductive sides alternately, and not in a systematic fashion.

c. Goals.

The goal of logic is to make the facts and their relations transparent; it teaches us to focus the object until its most firm manifestation is captured. Logic cannot immediately solve all problems, but it always brings us closer to the solutions.

For the individual, this self-discipline is the source of realism and understanding. 'Think for yourself', do your own thinking, 'use your head', be creative, think things through. The goal is not a mind a-buzz with words, a slave to words; but the inner peace and self-respect of efficacy.

In communication with others, transparency means expressing one's thoughts clearly, so that, as far as possible at the time, there is no doubt or ambiguity as to just what one is trying to say, and on the basis of what processes. 'Say what you mean, and mean what you say'. Information is freely and helpfully shared; points or areas of ignorance or error are easily admitted.

This is the idea of 'glasnost', transparency, a mutual respect and openness policy, a cooperative attitude, without unnecessary frictions. Too often, politicians, media, and others, use words to hide or distort, and do not in turn pay attention to input. You may prove something to them incontrovertibly; they remain unfazed, comme si de rien n’était.

Clarity of expression, accuracy of observation and thought, passing knowledge on honestly, reasonableness on all sides, are essential to vibrant democracy and social peace. Logic is a civilized way to resolve disputes.

This means self-criticism, the ability to review one's own proposals, and anticipate possible objections, and try to deal with them as well as one can. We often gloss over possible problems in our own ideas, hoping no one will spot them; but this wastes one's time, and everybody else's. Logic is taking the time to double check one's projects, shifting them this way and that way, to see how well focused they are in the largest context.

On the other hand, when receiving ideas, one's should not look at them with an overly-critical eye, at least until one has properly understood them. Like rigid bone, hasty and excessive skepticism can inhibit the growth of knowledge. 'Stop, look, listen', hear, consider, make the effort to assimilate it. Learn before you try to teach.

While I am not of the opinion that logic is relative and arbitrary, there is more often than not at least some helpful truth to be found in other people's concerns. One should not reject offhand, though still reserve one's judgement. One should neither fool nor be fooled. Be humble, but keep your standards high.

2. What Logic is Not.

I get some very funny reactions from people at the mention of the word 'logic'. One should not reject logic offhand, because of a mistaken notion of what it is about.

Logic is not a method of inferring all knowledge from a limited number of abstract premises; it is not a magical tool of omniscience. It depends for its action on moment by moment impressions or intuitions, which in some cases turn out to be unfounded. Nor is logic merely a mechanized manner of pursuing solutions to specific problems.

People often wrongly regard and use logic as a square-headed, narrow-minded activity. But in my opinion, logic is, straight and tough on a level of details, but overall very broad and open minded. Obstinacy and prejudice, are rather attributes of people unwilling to listen to reason, not even to at least consider alternative viewpoints. This is the very antithesis of a logician's attitude.

People often oppose 'logic' to feeling; they believe it discards the emotional side of life. But logic does not mean ignoring feelings, but rather recommends taking the feelings — including their inner meaning, their intuited significance — as one set of data among others in the total picture; rationalistic data must also, however, be given their due weight.

Some people complain that 'logic' sometimes leads to evil conclusions. But value-judgments involve inferences from standards. So either the norms are unsound, or they have not been given their due weights in comparison to other norms, or the proposed means are not the exclusive ways to achieve the norms. Thus, the failure involved may precisely be a weakness in logical abilities, rather than any inherent coldness of logic.

Logic is only a tool — it cannot be blamed for errors made in its name, nor can it control the moral choices of individuals who utilize it. Its only possible danger is that the efficacy it endows on thought and action may be used for nefarious ends. But even then, a person who sees things truly clearly, with the broad conception logic gives, is less likely to have twisted values.

Logic is an important component of both mental health and moral responsibility. It requests that we face facts and listen to the voice of reason: this does not exclude having a heart or paying attention to one's intuition. A person who does not keep in close touch with reality, can easily develop unhealthy emotions and make counter-productive choices. Rationality is a sign of maturity.

Another wrong impression people have of logic is that it is a meaningless manipulation of symbols, or at best a branch of mathematics. One man recently told me the following sad story. He thought of himself as a 'logical person', and being inclined to constantly improve his education, he enrolled for a University course on the subject in San Francisco. He was so put off by the lessons he attended, that he now hesitates to call himself 'logical'!